Northern Adult Basic Education Program (NABEP) Evaluation Final Report - Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency - November 2016

1.1 Program Background

1.1.2 Objectives and activities

The NABEP has two objectives: (1) to improve adult basic education (ABE) services and capacity in the territories and their colleges; and (2) to increase the number of working age adults with basic workplace skills, such as literacy and numeracy.

ABE is defined as education-related activities to help adults achieve sufficient levels of literacy, numeracy and other essential skills required to obtain a job or benefit from occupational training. Eligible activities under the NABEP include projects where the objectives are to:

• increase the number of ABE educators and capacity;
• increase number of Indigenous ABE educators;
• support partnerships among colleges and between other territorial organizations;
• support the development of culturally-appropriate material;
• strengthen the capacity to assess individuals prior to their enrolment in learning activities;
• increase the frequency and duration of ABE courses, as well as the number of locations where they are offered.

NABEP expected outcomes are the following:

• increased capacity to respond to the needs of adults learners who have deficiencies in their basic education;
• increased availability of ABE services across the North;
• increased number of adults enrolled in ABE courses;
• updated learning and assessment tools that are culturally adapted and labour market-oriented; and,
• improved employability and greater participation of northern Indigenous people in economic development projects.

The program logic model (Figure 1.1) is based on the idea that program effectiveness can be embodied in the concept of return on investment. A return on investment can include outputs and outcomes as described below, where each immediate and intermediate outcome can contribute to the long-term outcomes and increase of the use of ABE services.

Text description for Figure 1.1

The flowchart shows the program's logic model, which uses arrows to logically tie together the inputs, activities and outputs that will contribute to achieving the desired short-, medium- and long-term outcomes.

The inputs include human resources, the recipient's capacity, management and administrative support, facilities and infrastructure, research, and funding. These inputs will make it possible to carry out activities, including NABEP investments, and these activities will result in outputs that include the development and use of tools, the delivery of courses, and the hiring and training of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal educators.

The expected immediate outcome resulting from the outputs is the increased availability of adult basic education services. The expected intermediate outcomes resulting from the outputs as well as the immediate outcome include the increased use of services by adults and the increased quality of adult basic education services. Lastly, the resulting long-term outcomes will be increased employment, increased occupational, post secondary or job-readiness training, and an increase in quality of adult basic education services.

The NABEP Performance Measurement Strategy includes 15 indicators (Table 1.1 below).

Table 1.1: NABEP Performance Indicators

Performance Areas		Indicators
Activities		1. Number and type of ABE products or services approved
Outputs		2. Number and type of ABE products or services produced
Immediate outcomes	Increased availability of ABE services	3. Number of adult basic educators 4. Greater studying opportunities and learning continuity
Intermediate outcomes	Increased use of ABE services	5. Number of ABE students served
	Enhanced quality of ABE services	6. Number of training programs for adult educatorsFootnote 2 7. Number of Indigenous educators 8. Number of local residents hired as educators 9. New or enhanced ABE materials and curriculum put into use in the ABE system
Long term outcomesFootnote 3		10. Number of working age adult program participants who obtained jobs 11. Number of working age adult program participants who advanced to occupational training 12. Number of working age adult program participants who completed trades certification 13. Number of working age adult program participants who advanced to post secondary training (non-occupational) 14. Number of ABE students who successfully completed ABE 15. Number of ABE graduates who go on to job training

Results were included in quarterly reports and in one final report submitted at the end of each fiscal year. The final report included a summary of activities as outlined in the Project Work Plan, as well as any studies, agreements or plans developed during the reporting period.

1.2 Evaluation Objectives and Scope

In this evaluation, conducted at the close of the five-year funding period, the following aspects of the Program will be reviewed:

• The NABEP's relevance to federal government priorities and goals;
• The NABEP's relevance to CanNor priorities and goals;
• Achievement of expected short-, medium-, and long-term outcomes (seeTable 1.1: NABEP Performance Indicators and Figure 1.1 Logic Model for details);
• NABEP cost-effectiveness and efficiency; and,
• Lessons learned.

Each of these evaluation issues is covered in depth in the remainder of this report.

2.1 Key Lines of Evidence

2.2 Methodological Limitations

3.1 Description of NABEP Implementation Activities

In 2011-2012, with funds transferred near the end of the fiscal year, the colleges devoted most of their activities to developing their four-year work plans (2012-2013 to 2015-2016). Each work plan describes the activities that each college planned to carry out according to a relatively specific timetable. The four-year work plans were included in the funding applications, and an annually adjusted plan was included in the annual contribution agreements between the colleges and CanNor. The level and type of information included in the work plans varied from plan to plan. For example, the work plan submitted by Aurora College was very detailed with specific timelines and a performance management strategy, and the college submitted a report on its work plan every year. In comparison, there is no direct relationship between the work plans submitted by Yukon College and Nunavut Arctic College and the structure of their annual reports.

It was found in a review of the annual reports that the three colleges implemented very similar activities. These activities can be grouped into four core groups:

• Program delivery capacity;
• Access to and the quality of courses and material;
• Mobilization of partners and creation of partnerships; and,
• NABEP administration.

3.1.2 Analysis of outputs from activities

An overview of Aurora College's expenditures reveals trends in the activities carried out in the four groups of activities (Program delivery capacity; Access to and quality of courses and material, Mobilization of partners and creation of partnerships; and, NABEP administration). Figure 3.1 shows that activities related to increasing capacity and program administration decreased, while activities intended to improve access increased over the four-year period. This data suggests that once the foundation for effective program delivery has been established, more work is directed towards developing programs and producing material. In the absence of similar information from the other colleges, it is not possible to verify whether this is a common course of action.

A detailed analysis of the content of the work plans, compared with activities reported in the annual reports, reveals that most activities in the work plans were achieved, despite obstacles to program delivery. For example, the Yukon College annual reports describe the College's challenges in delivering activities. Many of the obstacles were related to remoteness of communities and decentralization of ABE centres. Other issues included in the Yukon College reports were a lack of local specialized teaching staff, high turnover and problems coordinating activities and logistics, particularly with remote communities. Some activities had to be postponed or cancelled for the following reasons: lack of funding (e.g. funding applications from additional sources were delayed or rejected); absence of timely partnerships (e.g. with Indigenous businesses and communities); and, delays resulting from course reviews or course pilot projects.

Note:
1) Category defined by CanNor.
Source: Aurora College Financial Statements.

Based on NABEP data, activities related to increasing capacity and improving access, are shown in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Table 3.1 provides an indication of the amount of material produced or revised.

Table 3.1: Capacity and Access Indicators Results, 2011-2015

Indicators(1)	Yukon	Northwest Territories	Nunavut
Number of ABE products or services produced	68	55	341
Number of training programs offered for adult learners	42	132	16
Number of new or enhanced ABE materials and curriculum put into use in the ABE system	54	22	68
Note: 1) Because the colleges' data are not comparable due to inconsistency in the definitions of concepts, totals are not available. Source: NABEP administrative data. Source: NABEP administrative data.

Le Table 3.2 indique le nombre d'éducateurs ayant participé aux activités liées au NABEP. Les éducateurs autochtones représentent une forte proportion de la main-d'œuvre, sauf au Yukon.

Table 3.2 Number of Adult Basic Educators, by Year, Indigenous Educators and Total Educators, 2011-2015

	Yukon College(1)		Aurora College(2)		Nunavut Arctic College(3)
	Indigenous Educators	Total Educators	Indigenous Educators	Total Educators	Indigenous Educators	Total Educators
2011-2012	0	3	0	0	0	0
2012-2013	10	52	22	6	17	26
2013-2014	3	14	15	13	10	14
2014-2015	12	111	16	24	17	24
Notes: 1) Includes any ABE educators; 2) Numbers do not add up because the number of Indigenous educators includes non-college staff and the total number of educators includes college staff only; 3) College staff only. Source: NABEP administrative data.

The Program data also indicate that, since the implementation of the NABEP, 83% of communities located north of 60 have access to some form of ABE. In Nunavut, as of 2015, almost all communities (96%) have access to ABE (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Communities Reached as a Result of the NABEP, by Territory, 2015

	2014-2015	Communities reached (as % of number of communities in each territory)
	Number	%
Yukon	12	71
Northwest Territories	26	79
Nunavut	25	96
Total	63	83
Source: Colleges data.

3.2 Ongoing Need for the Program

3.5 Summary of Findings

The most recent trends in LES justify the continuing need for ABE programs in the territories. One important area that requires attention—based on NABEP annual reports— appears to be a lack of sustained partnership between the private sector and the colleges for LES development in the workplace. Although there is no requirement that the NABEP be linked to industry-driven demand, there is a risk that, without a concrete link with the labour market, individuals will remain stuck in the "pre-employability cycle" of training, failing to find a job, and going back to training.

The NABEP is aligned with federal government and CanNor priorities. However, adult basic education is an area where federal and territorial jurisdictions and activities may intersect or overlap. The federal government plays a role in ABE and LES development through funding and fiscal transfers to the territories, by fulfilling its responsibilities with respect to labour market development and by establishing national standards for LES. In this context, the NABEP appears to be one of many federal initiatives in the area of LES development and ABE, but a niche player when compared to Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC) which administers large skills development training programs.

What makes the NABEP unique among other federal initiatives is its focus on building, supporting and leveraging the capacity of the colleges, which are the main providers of ABE training and services in the territories. The territorial governments, because of their responsibilities with respect to education, also provide the colleges with support and funding for ABE and LES development. As such, for some areas (e.g. recruiting educators, developing material and curricula or expanding outreach) the NABEP might overlap with territorial investments and possibly with program objectives.

4.1 Increased Availability of ABE Services

The impact of the NABEP on the number of communities where ABE services are offered vary by territory. As per table 4.1, the quantitative data suggest that there has been an increase in the availability of ABE services offered and in the number of adult students served by the colleges, although NABEP funding seems to have benefited some colleges more than others, particularly Nunavut Arctic College. The Northwest Territories saw no change in the number of communities offering ABE services—this number was consistently 26 from 2010 to 2016. The other two territories saw increases in the number of communities offering ABE. It is in Yukon where the increase was the greatest (50%). A summary of these increases is provided in the table below.

The qualitative data from interviews with adult students confirm that ABE courses are available in their communities: adult students who were interviewed for this evaluation found it easy to register for ABE activities in their communities. In addition, they noted that the classes were held in central areas of their towns that were easy to find and, where transit existed, locations were accessible via transit. A couple of students interviewed said that they had no trouble accessing the program once they learned about it, and said that the registration and enrolment process was easy.

Although none of the adult students interviewed mentioned any problems in obtaining a place in the classes^{Footnote 27}, one of the college representatives interviewed noted that there were waiting lists for NABEP courses, with dozens of names on the lists. This suggests that current ABE capacity may still not be sufficient to meet demand, even with NABEP funding. It may be inferred that infrastructure may be lacking (classroom space) and that college staff members' capacity to handle large numbers of students may be limited. Moreover, one college representative who was interviewed noted that advertising and communications materials concerning the NABEP was one area for which they did not sufficiently plan or anticipate having such a large need. This participant said that "getting the word out" had been a bigger task than expected, and it was not sufficient to just tack these activities onto staff members' already heavy workloads.

4.2 Improved Accessibility for Indigenous and Adults in Remote Northern Communitites

One of the main challenges in providing ABE services in the North is the large number of rural and remote communities with small, mostly Indigenous, population. Because these communities cannot be served by programs in major cities where college campuses are located, additional funding and service levels are required to make ABE accessible to community members. One of the expected outcomes of the NABEP was that funding would allow the colleges to offer services and ABE programs in these communities and ensure that the programs offered were culturally and linguistically appropriate to the community contexts.

4.3 Local Uptake of Services, Including Rural and Remote Communities and Among Indigenous Adults

4.4 Impact of the NABEP on the Quality of ABE Services

The fourth intermediate outcome reviewed in this evaluation is whether or not the NABEP has improved the quality of ABE services. To achieve this outcome, new curricula and course materials were developed in order to provide ABE instructors with training and professional development, and new student assessment tools were developed or existing student assessment tools improved.

4.5 Summary of Findings

NABEP has resulted in a marked increase in the availability of the colleges' ABE services, particularly at Yukon College and Nunavut Arctic College. Overall, the students interviewed found that the classes were accessible in terms of scheduling, location and enrolment.

Nonetheless, overall completion rates, as a proportion of enrolments, are below 50% for both Indigenous students and the general population. This suggests that, although there are high numbers of adult learners in the North interested in ABE courses, availabilityof courses is not the only barrier they face to furthering their education. As discussed in Section 3, there are many barriers to obtaining access to ABE. An effective solution for low completion rates could be to eliminate the barriers to obtaining access to ABE, including tuition fees and lack of childcare, and to develop positive incentives to encourage completion and the pursuit of post-secondary education.

NABEP funding has allowed the three northern colleges to develop, pilot and implement a large number of new embedded literacy courses. These courses are praised because of both their responsiveness to local labour market requirements and the embedded literacy aspect of the courses that ensures that adult education remains relevant to students and their job goals. The curriculum materials developed are also highly "shareable" through the development of educator resources and the use of electronic files, thus allowing for cost savings and efficiency in the delivery of previously developed curricula in a community.

With NABEP funding, adult educators have been able to receive valuable training in various ABE-related areas. Each college provided professional development and training courses for educators in a number of ways, thus ensuring accessibility of opportunities for adult educators.

5.1 Residents' Preparedness for Employment or Occupational Training

Perceptions of job preparedness or being able to go on to further education after attending ABE courses varied among the adult learners interviewed. For example, some students said they had mixed feelings about whether the NABEP had sufficiently prepared them for employment. Interviewed students said they believed they needed additional education before they could get the jobs they were hoping for, or that it was very difficult to find work in the fields in which they were interested.

All four educators interviewed said that they found the NABEP course materials to be helpful in improving students' employability and chances of finding a job after leaving the program. One instructor had seen two students find work in their field of instruction upon completion of the course, and another three were taking additional upgrading courses to continue on in the trade. Additionally, a couple of educators interviewed said that a major benefit of the NABEP courses was the opportunity for adult learners to experience success in the classroom, which boosted their self-confidence and their own perceptions of their ability to find a job after completing the course.

Industry representatives who were interviewed said that they hired NABEP graduates for entry-level positions. However, some industry representatives said that the skills acquired by NABEP graduates were insufficient for long-term or sustainable employment in their companies unless they took additional upgrading courses. The main challenges cited by the industry representatives in terms of sustainable employment were literacy and numeracy. One industry representative specifically mentioned critical thinking and problem-solving skills as specific challenges facing new hires, as well as a working knowledge of basic office applications, such as MS Office. However, this industry representative did say that laddering opportunities through ABE courses in the territory were helpful and allowed employees to upgrade their skills as needed through short-term modularized courses.

All of the college representatives interviewed said that the NABEP had improved students' ability to participate in the labour market. In fact, they cited follow-up surveys with students that found that a large proportion of them had found work upon completion of their courses, or they had gone on to additional upgrading or certificate courses. All of the college representatives said that the courses delivered in communities were tailored to meet labour market requirements in the communities or regions where the courses were given, and therefore students had a better chance of finding work upon completion of the program.

5.2 Residents' Participation in Employment, Occupational Training or Post-Secondary Training

Students' post-ABE education experiences varied. For example, two former NABEP students who were interviewed said they had already gone on to further education at the time of the interviews. Significantly, the students who had gone on to further education said that the NABEP had given them enough background and prepared them sufficiently for the courses and programs in which they had subsequently enrolled.

With respect to graduates' preparedness for further education, there was a range of answers from college representatives and adult educators. Two college representatives said that the low literacy levels of students can be a challenge because the short-term modular NABEP courses were insufficient to bring adult learners up to a literacy level that would enable them to complete upper-level ABE courses and continue on to post-secondary training or education. However, the college representatives did say that the NABEP was helpful in building learners' confidence and interest in school. Although some learners may not be immediately prepared for completing upper-level ABE courses or post-secondary education, the college representatives said that the Program gave students confidence to continue taking lower-level ABE courses and NABEP courses that could better prepare them for further education.

Educators were generally positive about the NABEP's ability to prepare graduates for further education and training. They had seen students continue on to further adult education and college prep courses, or continue on to take trades upgrading courses. Educators also reiterated that the program had a strong positive impact on students' self-confidence and comfort with classroom settings and adult education.

Because of the long time it takes to obtain additional certifications and education credentials, the only post-ABE credential measured and reported by the colleges was a trade certification. Other certifications and credentials, such as certificates or diplomas, were not recorded. Only five ABE graduates obtained a trade certification between 2011 and 2015 (four from Yukon College and one from Aurora College). Other students may have chosen to obtain their high school equivalency or to complete training for certificates or diplomas at the college level.

5.3 Summary of findings

ABE courses offered under the NABEP have helped prepare students for entry-level jobs in key areas of need in their local communities and workforces. Industry representatives found NABEP graduates to be prepared for entry-level positions, but that they would not be able to move up in the company without further training and education. Industry representatives also cited several areas where NABEP graduates were insufficiently prepared for the workplace.

Most stakeholders, including adult learners and college and industry representatives, agreed that completing just one ABE course was insufficient to prepare graduates for full participation in the workforce. Although there were jobs that graduates would be qualified for, these were often entry-level positions with little opportunity for advancement without further education or training. However, it should be noted that most students interviewed acknowledged their need for further education, and were planning on seeking this education in the future. The greatest benefit of NABEP courses for adult learners in terms of preparation for further education is that they provide students with a positive education experience and help them build confidence to continue their education.

6.1 Unintended Outcomes

Most interviewees agreed that the NABEP had a number of positive effects beyond what was originally expected. One that is often cited is that, despite the colleges being funded to undertake activities separately, the funds were used to develop joint activities and products, and share curricula and best practices. The interviewees said that this had two direct outcomes:

• Firstly, the NABEP resulted in a strengthening of the relationship between the colleges, as well as a broadening of that relationship to include other stakeholders. For example, two college representatives said that territorial government departments had shown interest in the curricula and programs developed under the NABEP, and had entered into partnership agreements with the colleges to continue providing these courses. An interviewee from one college also said that they had developed a stronger partnership with a large mining company operating in the area. The company and the college had worked together to develop three new industry-relevant courses to be given to students interested in careers in mining.
• Secondly, the NABEP increased the efficiency and improved the quality of the services and products that the colleges provide for adult learners in their regions. For example, a majority of the interview participants had seen positive results for the students that went beyond the expected outcomes, such as increased enrolment. Also, the way in which the program was designed and delivered provided a comprehensive approach to dealing with the barriers separating adult learners from employability. Some participants noticed that NABEP learners had experienced success and had positive experiences in school that had helped to diminish or counteract the legacy of residential schools in their communities. Two interviewees said specifically that the NABEP was designed in such a way as to help students experience success and achieve positive outcomes quickly and to prevent them from getting frustrated with the course work and dropping out.

Another noteworthy outcome is the additional opportunities when taking part in a literacy and essential skills (LES) program. For example, a number of students said that their instructors helped them find a job by either telling them about a job opening or recommending them for a position. In other words, participation in a program or even a single course exposed individuals to other networks that could help them enter the labour market.

6.2 Increasing Program Effectiveness

Despite the successes and improvement mentioned above, the interview participants suggested measures and approaches to be taken to increase the program's effectiveness.

Interview participants said there should be closer relationships with the employers. For example, educators who were interviewed suggested that it would be worthwhile for courses to include extended work placements and closer partnerships with local businesses to emphasize the on-the-job aspects of learning. The third interviewee suggested that Elder projects incorporated into ABE courses in her area were very important and should be continued, and that stronger relationships should be established with Elders in each community.

A number of interviewees talked about the risk facing students if their entry into the labour force was delayed and they got trapped in ongoing training. For example, it was suggested that a laddering approach would help adult learners achieve higher levels of education rather than have them continue taking courses in different substantive areas. One college representative said that there was a need to develop laddering from ABE courses to other adult basic education courses. The representative said that NABEP courses had been very successful in attracting students to the program and getting them to complete the program because they are short, modular courses well-suited to learners' needs. In contrast, territorial ABE involved much longer courses (i.e. standard four-month terms much like other college courses). In these courses, achieving full Grade 12 equivalency could take a year or longer, depending on the student's previous learning.

Students who were interviewed stressed the importance of considering supports to be provided to promote graduation or program completion. For example, one student said that the NABEP should offer some form of daycare, because she had noticed that many of her classmates had difficulty finding childcare and therefore had difficulty staying in the course. Another student, from Nunavut, suggested that Inuktitut-speaking teachers were needed because of the low English literacy levels of many students.

6.3 Increasing Program Efficiency

The interviewees had varying perceptions of the program's efficiency. One of the more challenging aspects was the additional burden of program management. For example, two representatives of the colleges said that there were a number of individuals, including instructors and administrative staff, who ended up either devoting some of their time to NABEP activities or putting in additional hours to keep up with the work resulting from NABEP implementation. This included issues such as finding educators in remote communities, putting in extra time to coordinate and prepare for course work, and financial and other administrative work being done "off the sides of their desks." A number of educators who were interviewed said it was a highly efficient and beneficial practice to share curriculum packages among colleges and with communities throughout the three territories.

6.4 Summary of Findings

For the most part, the NABEP has had a positive impact beyond its intended outcomes. The outcome mentioned by several interviewees is the strengthened relationship between the colleges. Concrete examples of stronger relationships are the sharing of best practices and information and the development of a pan-territorial perspective on LES,^{Footnote 29}, which, in turn, helped strengthen relationships. It is not known whether these partnerships among the colleges would have been established without the NABEP, considering that there are a number of pan-territorial initiatives where the three colleges are involved as key partners, or whether this is attributable, for example, to maturing organizations.^{Footnote 30} In brief, the colleges seem to have taken advantage of the NABEP eligible expenditure policy supporting partnerships between colleges and with other territorial organizations in order to increase their collaboration with one another.

Despite the time limit on the NABEP, the interviews suggest that the program has created expectations on the part of the colleges, as well as the territorial governments. This unintended outcome may be explained by the size of NABEP funding, especially in proportion to the northern colleges' overall envelope for ABE, which provided unprecedented flexibility to address ABE deficiencies.

The work carried out to increase the relevance and effectiveness of activities and products, as well as to implement a more comprehensive approach through improved services for students, seems to have had a far reaching impact on individuals, such as increasing their self-esteem and improving their ability to network to find employment. In terms of effectiveness, better relationships with employers and coordination of the activities of funding organizations so that students benefit from a continuum of programming and support have been suggested as promising approaches for increasing program effectiveness.

Adult education

Activités éducatives offertes dans un cadre structuré, non structuré ou informel, qui ciblent les adultes et visent à promouvoir l'éducation et la formation initiales, ou à s'y substituer. L'objectif visé peut être: a) d'atteindre un niveau donné d'instruction ou de qualification professionnelle; b) d'acquérir des connaissances et des compétences dans un nouveau domaine (pas nécessairement en vue d'obtenir une qualification); c) de se recycler ou de mettre à jour ses connaissances ou ses compétences (UNESCO, 2005).

Basic education

Basic education refers to a whole range of educational activities, taking place in various settings, that aim to meet basic learning needs as defined in the World Declaration on Education for All (1990). According to the International Standard Classification of Education standard, basic education comprises primary education (first stage of basic education) and lower secondary education (second stage). It also covers a wide variety of non-formal and informal public and private activities intended to meet the basic learning needs of people of all ages. (UNESCO 2005)

Literacy and essential skills

Literacy and essential skills are the skills needed for work, learning and life; are the foundation for learning all other skills; and help people evolve with their jobs and adapt to workplace change. Through extensive research, the Government of Canada, along with other national and international agencies, has identified and validated key literacy and essential skills. These skills are used in nearly every job and throughout daily life in different ways and at varying levels of complexity. Essential skills include the skills associated with literacy (i.e. reading, writing, document use and numeracy) but goes beyond to also include thinking skills, oral communication, computer use/digital skills, working with others and the skills associated with continuous learning. They provide the foundation for learning all other skills and enable people to better prepare for, get and keep a job, and adapt and succeed at work. (Employment and Social development – Office of Essential Skills

Literacy and numeracy proficiency

Literacy is more than decoding words or recognizing symbols. It is the ability to use written and numerical information in order to do everyday tasks at home, at work and in the community. Over the past 20 years, International surveys changed the conception of literacy from the literate/illiterate dichotomy to the new understanding of literacy as a continuum. The understanding of ‘literacy' continues to expand and evolve to include a wide variety of skills.

The Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) is the latest version of those surveys, initiated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. PIAAC evolved from two previous international literacy surveys: the International Adult Literacy Survey, conducted between 1994 and 1998, and the Adult Literacy and Life skills Survey, conducted between 2002 and 2006. Essentially, those surveys conceptualize literacy, as well as numeracy and (for PIAAC) problem solving in technology-rich environments, along a continuum of proficiency from Level 1 (low literacy skills) to Level 5 (strong literacy skills). Level 1 indicates basic literacy ability in either or both of Canada's official languages. Level 2 is considered to be less than the skills needed to graduate from high school. Level 3 is the level needed for most literacy tasks in our society and in the workplace. It is the level of literacy needed to graduate from high school and enter college. Levels 4 and 5 mean that the individual is highly literate in either or both official languages. (Harwood 2012 and Statistics Canada 2013a).